Organic agriculture as a way of farming is spreading steadily. More farmers are making the switch and organic farming methods are become more refined. Only recently have questions been raised about the origins of plant and seed stock used in organic farming. Until now, organic farmers have had little choice but to use conventional propagating material, although conventionally produced varieties are also being propagated increasingly under organic conditions.
The fact that modern varieties perform better in organic conditions than do old varieties does not mean that the former are the best choice for organic farming. To further optimise organic farming systems, varieties must be developed with a higher adaptive capacity for specific regional conditions and lower levels of fertilisation, which are better able to suppress weeds,which have a high resistance to pests and diseases and which have better product quality, particularly keeping quality and taste.
Next to these specific desired characteristics for organic crop varieties (the product), the organic sector also sets requisites for breeding methods (the process). The general principles of organic agriculture and the first practical experiences with organic plant breeding point the way to realistic propositions for ecological and socio-economic preconditions for an organic plant breeding system.
Ecological preconditions should be aimed at ensuring a sustainable use of cultivars, specifically ensuring their natural reproductive ability when grown organically, their independent ability to adapt to (regional) organic farming conditions, and maintenance of their typical characteristics.
Socio-economic preconditions should be aimed at realising a closer cooperation between breeders and farmers and at amending existing legal and financial regulations for the seed trade to give organically produced seed a better chance on the market. One of the most important preconditions for organic breeding is a free exchange of genetically distinct stock material among breeders. Patenting (parts of) living organisms should therefore be prohibited.
In summary, the preconditions that we propose for this report are:
- crossing and selection methods at crop and plant level are highly appropriate for organic plant breeding;
- crossing techniques may be applied in organic plant breeding if pollination and seed formation occurs on the plant;
- hybrids may be used in organic farming if F1 progeny are fertile and parent lines can be maintained in organic growing conditions (cms may only be applied if restorer lines are available);
- breeding techniques at the cell level are not really appropriate for organic plant breeding, however they are so commonplace that alternatives will need to be developed before they can be banned;
- genetic modification is an unsuitable technique for organic breeding and unnecessary for the development of organic agriculture;
- DNA diagnostic methods might complement other selection methods in organic plant breeding.
The further development of organic agriculture should not depend on the use of genetically modified organisms (gmos). Organic agriculture needs a plant breeding system which respects basic organic principles and meets the needs of organic farmers.
Gene technology is finding its way into conventional plant breeding at such a rate that if the organic production chain is to remain gmo-free, an organic breeding system must be developed now, with or without the cooperation of conventional breeding firms.
The propositions and preconditions stated in this paper serve to focus the discussion on organic plant breeding. Such a discussion should include organic farmers, but also trading partners, professional organisations and social and environmental pressure groups, since a policy plan for an organic plant breeding system is best drawn up when it can count on broad support.
1. In this paper, for the sake of readability we have used the term 'organic' in the context of agriculture, farming or farm management systems when we mean both organic and biodynamic agriculture, farming, and so forth.
2. Organic agriculture is understood to be that section of agribusiness which operates in accordance with Council Regulation (EEC) no. 2092/91 on organic production or in accordance with the private production standards set by SKAL. Both the organic and biodynamic agricultural methods (producing EKO-label products) meet SKAL standards.
3. Council Directive 90/220/EEC defines a gmo as 'an organism in which the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination.'
4. SKAL publishes an annual list of producers of organic plant material and seed stock and the varieties being propagated. If non-treated material cannot be obtained on the market the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries (LASER) can grant exemptions. These exemptions only apply during the transition period up to 31 December 2000 (Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91) after which all propagating material used by organic farmers must be of organic origin.
5. Certain characteristics, such as climate change, apply to the whole of the Netherlands. However, the Netherlands can be divided into several regions for characteristics pertaining to soil type.
6. It is not Kunz' intention to develop different varieties for each individual farm, but his varieties are region-specific. Trial plots are located on organic farms which are representative for the region concerned.
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Glossary
additive characteristics: characteristics (alleles) whose interaction is such that the phenotype of the heterozygote is exactly the average of the genotypes of the corresponding homozygous phenotypes
allele: alternate forms of a particular gene
organic agriculture: the general term for organic agriculture in the strict sense (farming without chemical fertilisers and pesticides) and biodynamic agriculture
biodynamic agriculture: one of the streams in organic agriculture, based on the agricultural teachings of Rudolf Steiner (1924); biodynamic farming is based on the concept of the farm as a living organism with a unique identity. An important feature of biodynamic farming is bringing the soil to life, by nourishing it with vegetable or animal concoctions and by stimulating it by exposure to cosmic forces
biotechnology: techniques and production processes using living organisms (gene technology falls under biotechnology)
chimera: an organism having two or more genetically distinct types of cells due to mutation, grafting, etc.
cms: cytoplasmic male sterility, a form of male sterility rooted in cytoplasmic DNA (this trait is only passed on in the female line)
differentiation: the process in which unspecialised cells develop specific functions and structure
dioecious: the male flowers are on different plants from the female flowers
diploid: diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes and thus two alleles for each trait (one from the father and one from the mother)
DNA: Deoxyribo-nucleic acid, forming the basic material in the chromosomes of the cell nucleus; DNA contains the genetic code and transmits the hereditary pattern
dominant: an allele is called dominant if its contribution to the phenotype overrules that of other alleles
to emasculate: in plants, to remove the stamens before the pollen has matured
gene: a chromosome fragment containing the code for a specific hereditary trait
gene technology: science and engineering techniques directed at the DNA level of organisms
genotype: the genetic constitution of an organism.
goethean phenomenology: a philosophy of science which aims to gain an understanding of the inner and outer phenomena in nature and in humans through open- minded observation. Also referred to as the the science of understanding (rather than the science of explaining).
haploid: having only one set of chromosomes
hermaphrodite: flowers with both pistils and stamens
heterosis: also called hybrid vigour; a phenomenon resulting from hybridisation, in which offspring display greater vigour, size, resistance etc. than the parents
heterozygote: a plant having two different alleles at a single locus on a chromosome and hence not breeding true to type for the particular character involved
homologous: chromosomes in a diploid cell have the same genetic sequence but originate from different parents
homozygous: an organism is homozygous for a particular character when it has inherited identical alleles for that character from both its parents
inbreeding depression: a phenomenon occuring in cross-pollinators in which the plant's vigour deteriorates as a consequence of repeated selfing
marker: a DNA fragment/character which is used in DNA or in vitro selection
microsatellite: DNA with a short, repeating basepair sequence, which can vary strongly in a population and which can be used for genetic fingerprinting
monoecious plant: male and female flowers grow on the same individual plant
mutagens: substances which can cause mutations
mutation: a change in a certain hereditary trait
phenotype: the net outward appearance of the organism
recessive: that one of any pair of allelic hereditary factors which, when both are present in the germ plasm, remain latent; only when two recessive alleles for the same character are inherited from the father and mother, will they contribute to the phenotype
restorer gene: genes which undo male sterility (such as cms)
self-incompatibility: a natural genetic system in cross-pollinators to prevent selfing as much as possible. Self-incompatible plants cannot fertilise themselves
tetraploid: a cell which has four sets of chromosomes
translocation: rearrangement of chromosomes, in which chromosomes cut and non-homologous chromosome fragments join up again
List of abbreviations
AFLPAmplified Fragment Length Polymorphism
ELISAEnzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay
gmogenetically modified organism
RAPDRandom Amplified Polymorphic DNA
RFLPRandom Fragment Length Polymorphism